Psychonomic Bulletin & Review

Over past couple of decades our understanding of visual working memory (VWM), and working memory in general, has been predominantly in line with the capacity debate. We recently opened a new line of inquiry regarding the recall of a single object to go beyond the capacity debate, and showed that a series of feature probe questions about a single object yields poorer recall later in the sequence (Sengupta et al, 2020). In the current work we focused on another aspect of sequential feature recall - mainly regarding whether recall can be improved by asking the same question twice. To that end, we chose to focus on two features - color and location, and we contrasted repeat and non-repeat (from the standpoint of feature questions) trials in a series of two experiments. In repeat trials either color or location would be probed twice consecutively. In non-repeat trials color and location probes were presented one after the other in random order. In all trials the stimulus was a small colored oriented line presented for 1 sec in a location within 4o of visual angle. The recall of color and location were mapped onto continuous variable like Sengupta et al, 2020 - for instance, color recall was mapped onto a color wheel. In the first experiment, we used an unaltered color wheel when the color question was repeated. For the second experiment, we used a rotated color wheels for two consecutive color recall trials. We observed an increase in recall error for both repeat and non-repeat condition for location when the probe was at the second question in both experiments. However, color recall error did not increase for second repeat question condition in Experiment 1 as opposed to the non-repeat condition. On the other hand, in Experiment 2 we observed the expected increase in recall error for both repeat and non repeat condition for color probe at the second question. This maybe due to the fact that participants used an anchoring strategy in Experiment 1 by remembering where they clicked on the color wheel in the first question. The rotation of color wheel in second experiment destroys the anchor leading to the aforementioned result. The results show that trying to recall the same feature again leads to degradation of recall accuracy for both color and location, and human beings may use different strategies for recall in working memory tasks.

Theories of embodied language hold that word processing is automatically accompanied by sensory and motor simulations. For example, when you read the word sun, a sensory simulation of brightness as well as a motor simulation of pupil constriction would be automatically triggered. Consistent with this notion, Mathot, Grainger, and Strijkers (2017) found that the eyes pupil was slightly smaller after reading single words that were associated with brightness (e.g. sun) as compared to darkness (e.g. night); that is, the pupil light response was modulated by the semantic brightness of words. However, (other) key findings within the field of embodied language have proven difficult to replicate, and we therefore felt that it was crucial to replicate the effect of semantic brightness on pupil size. To this end, we conducted a close-but-non-identical replication of two key experiments from Mathot, Grainger, and Strijkers (2017): one experiment with visually presented words, and one experiment with spoken words. Both experiments were successfully replicated. We propose that cognitive modulations of the pupil light response reflect activity in visual brain areas; therefore, the effect of semantic brightness on pupil size can be used as a marker for the involvement of visual brain areas in language processing, and thus to address a wide variety of key questions within psycholinguistics.

Studies on confidence in decision-making tasks have repeatedly shown correlations between confidence and the characteristics of motor responses. Here, we show the results of two experiments in which we manipulated the type of motor response that precedes confidence rating. Participants decided which box, left or right, contained more dots and then reported their confidence in this decision. In Experiment 1, prior to confidence rating, participants were required to follow a motor cue. Cued-response type was manipulated in two dimensions: task-compatibility (the relation between response set and task-relevant decision alternatives), and stimulus-congruence (spatial correspondence between response key and the location of the stimulus that should be chosen). In Experiment 2, a decision-related response set was randomly varied in each trial, being either vertical (task incompatible) or horizontal (task-compatible, spatially congruent and incongruent). The main results showed that choice confidence increased following task-compatible responses, i.e. responses related to the alternatives of the choice in which confidence was reported. Moreover, confidence was higher in these conditions, independently of response accuracy and spatial congruence with the correct stimuli. We interpret these results as suggesting that action appropriate in the context of a given task is an indicator of successful completion of the decision-related process. Such an action, even a spurious one, inflates decisional confidence.

The softness of objects can be perceived through several senses. For instance, to judge the softness of our cats fur, we do not only look at it, we also run our fingers in idiosyncratic ways through its coat. Recently, we have shown that haptically perceived softness covaries with the compliance, viscosity, granularity, and furriness of materials (Dovencioglu et al.,2020). However, it is unknown whether vision can provide similar information about the various aspects of perceived softness. Here, we investigated this question in an experiment with three conditions: in the haptic condition, blindfolded participants explored materials with their hands, in the visual-static condition participants were presented with close-up photographs of the same materials, and in the visual-dynamic condition participants watched videos of the hand-material interactions that were recorded in the haptic condition. After haptically or visually exploring the materials participants rated them on various attributes. Our results show a high overall perceptual correspondence between the three experimental conditions. With a few exceptions, this correspondence tended to be strongest between haptic and visual-dynamic conditions. These results are discussed with respect to information potentially available through the senses, or through prior experience, when judging the softness of materials.

As decisions require the gathering of relevant information, eye-tracking measures that capture the way visual information is typically acquired offer powerful indices of the dynamic decision-making process. This study is the second of a pair of studies that explore continuous measures of decision-making using remote, online tools in naturalistic settings. While cursor-tracking, used in the companion paper (Ouellette Zuk et al., 2023), enabled access to dynamic decision processes expressed during movement, in the present study, we now employ webcam eye-tracking to examine the dynamics of information gathering during decision making prior to movement initiation. Using three previously published binary choice tasks, we explored indices of decision difficulty in the gaze dynamics that would complement the motor measures in our companion paper. We find that harder choices elicit more eye dwells and longer final dwells, reflecting a decision resolution process that Ouellette Zuk et al. index during the final choice movement. Beyond this, we identify distinct gaze patterns uniquely employed in each task, revealing the utility and sensitivity of gaze metrics in illuminating the early difficulty-independent information gathering processes at play. Together, this paper series demonstrates the power of remote, online methods as tools for deeply understanding the complete, dynamic and continuous decision process, from the first glance to the final response.

Since Kepler (1604) and Descartes (1637), its been suggested that vergence (the angular rotation of the eyes) plays a key role in size constancy. However, this has never been tested divorced from confounding cues such as changes in the retinal image. In our experiment participants viewed a target which grew or shrank over 5 seconds. At the same time the fixation distance specified by vergence was reduced from 50cm to 25cm. The question was whether the reduction in the viewing distance specified by vergence biased the participants judgements of whether the target grew or shrank? We found no evidence of any bias, and therefore no evidence that eye movements affect perceived size. If this is correct, then this finding has three implications: First, perceived size is much more reliant on cognitive influences than previously thought. This is consistent with the argument that visual scale is purely cognitive in nature (Linton, 2017; 2018). Second, it leads us to question whether the vergence modulation of V1 contributes to size constancy. Third, given the interaction between vergence, proprioception, and the retinal image in the Taylor illusion, it leads us to ask whether this cognitive approach could also be applied to multisensory integration.

Working memory (WM) serves as a neurocognitive system responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating information when its source has disappeared. Previous investigations into whether features within the same dimension were stored separately or conjoined into objects have yielded conflicting findings. Based on increasing evidence on the adaptivity of the working memory system, we conjectured that the format in which objects from the same dimension are stored in Visual Working Memory (VWM) might be contingent on the specific task demands, and subtle distinctions across experiments may account for the disparities in results. In the current study, we introduced modifications to the paradigm used by Luck and Vogel (1997) and Wheeler and Treisman (2002), where the same paradigm led to different conclusions, to assess whether implicit task requirements could influence the storage format of objects in visual working memory. In two conditions, we manipulated the relevance of conjunction between two colors by varying the proportions of Mis-conjunct probes, a probe type depending on conjunction information for accurate responses. The results showed that in both conditions, performance was primarily determined by the number of features rather than the number of objects, aligning with the results of Wheeler and Treisman. Nevertheless, we observed that Mis-conjunct probes, which require conjunction information, exhibited improved performance when tested more frequently. This suggests that the format of retention in working memory, whether in separate or conjoined form, is influenced by the task demands.

Influential theories on error processing assume that when we conduct errors adaptive processes are triggered to improve our behaviour and prevent errors in the future. These processes appear to be more effective after participants have detected an error. Therefore, the assessment of error awareness allowing a differential analysis of detected and undetected errors in the context of cognitive control and behavioural adjustments has gained more and more attention in the past decades. A common methodological challenge posed on all studies investigating error detection is that the number of undetected errors is usually relatively low. Here, we introduce a gamified experimental task that uses an adaptive algorithm to generate a robust and stable amount of errors with a high rate of undetected errors. Further, we were able to identify error types, which interestingly differed in terms of their detection rate. Moreover, the game-like appearance of the novel experimental task led to highly motivated participants. The results of the first study were replicated and extended by a second behavioural study. Notably, in study 2, a change in task design specifically modulated error detection, while these changes did not affect the total error rate. Potential applications of the open-source code will be discussed. With this newly developed paradigm, we wish to lay the ground for future research to understand better (neural) processes associated with error awareness.

Previous work has suggested that small directional eye movements not only reveal the focus of external spatial attention towards visible stimuli, but also accompany shifts of internal attention to stimuli in visual working memory (VWM)(van Ede et al., 2019). When the orientations of two bars are memorized and a subsequent retro-cue indicates which orientation needs to be reported, participants gaze is systematically biased towards the former location of the cued item (Figure 1AB). This finding was interpreted as evidence that the oculomotor system indexes internal attention; that is, attention directed at the location of stimuli that are no longer presented but are maintained in VWM. Importantly, as the location of the bars is presumably not relevant to the memory report, the authors concluded that orientation features in VWM are automatically associated with locations, suggesting that VWM is inherently spatially organized. This conclusion depends on the key assumption that participants indeed memorize and subsequently attend orientation features. Here we re-analyse Experiment 1 by van Ede et al. (2019) and demonstrate that this assumption does not hold. Instead of memorizing orientation features, participants deployed an alternative spatial strategy by memorizing bar endpoints. Although we do not call into question the conclusion that internal attention is inherently spatially organized, our results do imply that directional gaze biases might also reflect attention directed at task-relevant stimulus endpoints, rather than internal attention directed at memorized orientations. O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=161 SRC="FIGDIR/small/610231v2_fig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (43K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@940e51org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@37ec3dorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@176b186org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@180e8a7_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG O_FLOATNOFigure 1.C_FLOATNO Gaze density maps from Experiment 1 by van Ede et al. (2019) (N = 23, trials included = 20.864, 400 to 1000 ms). AB. Original reported effect of cued item location on gaze bias. Calculated by subtracting cued-item-left and cued-item-right gaze density maps. Rectangles indicate used stimulus positions and orientation ranges (min: 20{degrees}, mean: 45{degrees}, max: 70{degrees}; min: 110{degrees}, mean: 135{degrees}, max: 160{degrees}) of bar stimuli. C. Normalized Gaze bias vectors per condition (red dotted lines), horizontal vectors (dotted black lines) and average vectors pointing towards most foveal bar endpoints (solid black lines). Gaze bias vector endpoints were calculated from the centre of mass of each condition, ignoring negative values. Circular t-tests revealed that individual gaze bias vector angles (red dotted lines) were significantly different from horizontal vectors (dotted black lines) but not significantly different from endpoint vectors (solid black lines). FI. Vertical gaze bias revealed by separating trials based on bar orientations. Red dotted lines depict group average gaze bias vectors. F. Both bar endpoints "upwards" (left: 20{degrees} to 70{degrees} right: 110{degrees} to 160{degrees}) minus both bars endpoints "downwards" (left: 110{degrees} to 160{degrees}, right: 20{degrees} to 70{degrees}). I. Both "downwards" minus both "upwards". DEGH. Individual gaze density maps for each attention (left versus right) and bar endpoint direction (upwards versus downwards) separately. Solid black Lines show average vector pointing towards closest 45{degrees}/135{degrees} bar endpoint (i.e., average optimal gaze location for solving the memory task through memory maintenance of a spatial location). Red dotted lines depict group average gaze bias vectors (calculated from the centre of mass of each condition, ignoring negative values). C_FIG

The ability to store information in visual working memory is essential to plan and successfully execute memory-guided actions in natural human behavior. Typically, visual working memory research investigates how storing affects subsequent action. In doing so, however, the importance of how the action affects prior storing remains underappreciated. Therefore, we here question how the required precision for an action to succeed, affects how relevant visual information is encoded, maintained and finally acted on. To this end, we had participant memorize 1, 2 or 4 colors for delayed continuous report. Crucially, we manipulated how (im)precise the report was allowed to still be marked correct. Behavioral results showed that for actions with higher required precision, reports became more precise, but only when one or two colors were memorized. Also, reports became slower with higher required precision, regardless of the number of colors. By leveraging pupillometry, we further showed that with higher required precision, 1) colors were encoded deeper (since pupils constricted more during presentation), and 2) more effort was exerted to maintain the colors (since pupils dilated more during retention). Moreover, we found that participants kept exerting more effort to be precise (with increasing precision requirements), even when additional effort did not result in better performance anymore. Our findings demonstrate that humans consider their intended actions when encoding and maintaining information in visual working memory. Our results highlight the essential role of action in understanding how visual information is stored during natural goal-directed behavior. 242 words

Gamification refers to the introduction of gaming elements such as scores and leaderboards in non-gaming contexts. While there is growing evidence that gamification has positive effects on intrinsic motivation and engagement, it is largely unknown whether these effects translate to improved cognitive performance. Here, we examine whether gamification affects performance on a visual working memory (VWM) task. In Experiment 1, we gamified a standard delayed-estimation task by introducing scores and a leveling system. On each trial, the subjects estimation error was mapped to a score between -100 and +100 and added to their total score. Subjects started at a set size of 1 and "leveled up" to the next set size each time they had accumulated 1,500 points. Post-experiment questionnaire data confirmed that subjects who performed the gamified version of the task were more motivated than control subjects. However, we found no difference in VWM performance between these two groups, nor between below-median and above-median motivated subjects. In Experiment 2, we tested for effects of trial-by-trial manipulations of motivation on VWM performance, by varying the scoring function across trials. Three scoring functions were used, with maxima of 7, 21, and 101 points. At the beginning of each trial, the subject was informed whether the potential reward was "low", "medium", or "high". Post-questionnaire data showed that subjects were more motivated on high-reward trials. However, we found no evidence for a difference in performance between the three reward levels. Our results suggest that gamification increases peoples motivation to carry out visual working memory tasks, but it does not necessarily increase their performance.

A major distinction in early visual processing is the magnocellular (MC) and parvocellular (PC) pathways. The MC pathway preferentially processes motion, transient events, and low spatial frequencies, while the PC pathway preferentially processes color, sustained events, and high spatial frequencies. Prior work has theorized that the PC pathway more strongly contributes to conscious object recognition via projections to the ventral "what" visual pathway, whereas the MC pathway underlies non-conscious, action-oriented motion and localization processing via the dorsal stream "where/how" pathway. This invites the question: Are we equally aware of activity in both pathways? And if not, do task demands interact with which pathway is more accessible to awareness? We investigated this question in a set of two studies measuring participants metacognition for stimuli biased towards MC or PC processing. The "Steady/Pulsed Paradigm" presents brief stimuli under two conditions thought to favor either pathway. In the "pulsed" condition, the target appears atop a strong luminance pedestal which theoretically saturates the transient MC response and leaves the PC pathway to process the stimulus. In the "steady" condition, the stimulus is identical except the luminance pedestal is constant throughout the trial, rather than flashed alongside the target. This theoretically adapts the PC neurons and leaves MC for processing. Experiment 1 was a spatial localization task thought to rely on information relayed from the MC pathway. Using both a model-based and model-free approach to quantify participants metacognitive sensitivity to their own task performance, we found greater metacognition in the steady (MC-biased) condition. Experiment 2 was a fine-grained orientation-discrimination task more reliant on PC pathway information. Our results show an abolishment of the MC pathway advantage seen in Experiment 1 and suggest that the metacognitive advantage for MC processing may hold for stimulus localization tasks only. More generally, our results highlight the need to consider the possibility of differential access to low-level stimulus properties in studies of visual metacognition

The influence of confidence in assessing the perceived timing of sensory events on perceptual decision-making remains poorly understood. Metacognition--the ability to reflect on ones thought processes -- is often assessed through confidence ratings in perceptual tasks. However, accessing metacognitive information can influence task performance, a phenomenon known as the reactivity effect. This study examines metacognitive reactivity by examining the impact of confidence ratings on the temporal binding window (TBW) in two multisensory time perception tasks that use identical stimuli but require different judgments: Temporal Order Judgment (TOJ) and Simultaneity Judgment (SJ). Thirty-five participants (aged 18-39) completed TOJ and SJ tasks with and without confidence ratings via Prolific, an online participant recruitment platform. Psychometric functions were fitted to response and confidence data to determine TBW and the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS). Both tasks exhibited reactivity effects, with the effect being stronger in the SJ task. TBW significantly differed between TOJ and SJ tasks, regardless of confidence ratings. Additionally, TBWs from TOJ and SJ tasks were strongly correlated, as were the width parameters of confidence curves, suggesting shared underlying mechanisms in both perceptual and metacognitive processes. These findings highlight the utility of confidence ratings in evaluating TOJ and SJ performance, revealing both task differences and commonalities. We also discuss the potential for training interventions to enhance temporal perception, particularly in older adults. Finally, we reflect on the advantages and challenges of online data collection via Prolific, including its diverse participant pool and timing precision limitations.

Our attentional resources are allocated to the various aspects of the environment based on the context, and predictive coding has been used as a model to explain the interaction between sensory-based information and top-down expectations in visual attention (Spratling, 2008; Rauss et al., 2011). On the other hand, the saliency of the environmental stimuli is also hypothesized to be capturing the attentional resources of the individuals involuntarily, and thus, it is thought to be playing a crucial role in attentional resource allocation. The current study investigates the role of predictive processing of task difficulty in selective visual attention in the presence of various distractors. Utilizing a letter search task, we provided brief cues about the upcoming tasks difficulty, and participants were asked to detect the target letters. We investigated whether predictive processing about task demands may cause a difference in behavioral measures in the presence of semantically less salient distractors in Experiment 1 (Gabor patches) and semantically more salient distractors in Experiment 2 (faces). Results showed that unmet expectations about the task demands caused longer reaction times in both studies. We observed that all independent variables, which are task difficulty, cue congruency, and distractor presence, affected reaction times in both experiments, but cue congruency interacted with distractor presence only in Experiment 2. Here, we argue that though predictive processing plays a role in attentional resource allocation and, distractors characteristics are also crucial as the saliency level interacts with the cue congruency.

Visual search is one of the most ecologically important perceptual task domains. One research tradition has studied visual search using simple, parametric stimuli and a signal detection theory or Bayesian modeling framework. However, this tradition has mostly focused on homogeneous distractors (identical to each other), which are not very realistic. In a different tradition, Duncan and Humphreys (1989) conducted a landmark study on visual search with heterogeneous distractors. However, they used complex stimuli, making modeling and dissociation of component processes difficult. Here, we attempt to unify these research traditions by systematically examining visual search with heterogeneous distractors using simple, parametric stimuli and Bayesian modeling. Our experiment varied multiple factors that could influence performance: set size, task (N-AFC localization vs detection), whether the target was revealed before or after the search array (perception versus memory), and stimulus spacing. We found that performance robustly decreased with increasing set size. When examining within-trial summary statistics, we found that the minimum target-to-distractor feature difference was a stronger predictor of behavior than the mean target-to-distractor difference and than distractor variance. To obtain process-level understanding, we formulated a Bayesian optimal-observer model. This model accounted for all summary statistics, including when fitted jointly to localization and detection. We replicated these results in a separate experiment with reduced stimulus spacing. Together, our results represent a critique of Duncan and Humphreys descriptive approach, bring visual search with heterogeneous distractors firmly within the reach of quantitative process models, and affirm the "unreasonable effectiveness" of Bayesian models in explaining visual search.

Recent studies have shown that paranormal believers may exhibit cognitive dysfunctions, yet their performance in conjunction with visual search has not been understood. To address this issue, we examined the performance of both paranormal believers and skeptics in a conjunction visual search task, paying particular attention to their search time and accuracy across different set sizes in both target-present (TP) and target-absent (TA) trials. In our study, believers demonstrated a tendency toward speed but also displayed carelessness compared to skeptics when rejecting the presence of the target. Conversely, skeptics exhibited slower search times but demonstrated greater accuracy both in rejecting the presence of the target and in finding it. Overall, our findings suggest that believers were quicker and less accurate in rejecting the presence of the target in conjunction visual search compared to skeptics, highlighting potential differences in cognitive processing between skeptics and believers. Significant statementOur study investigates the performance of paranormal believers and skeptics in conjunction with visual search tasks, shedding light on potential differences in cognitive processing between the two groups. While believers demonstrate faster search times, they also display greater carelessness compared to skeptics when rejecting the targets presence. In contrast, skeptics exhibit slower search times but higher accuracy in both rejecting and finding the target. These findings underscore the importance of considering individual belief systems in understanding cognitive performance in conjunction with visual tasks.

Cognitive overload can impair professional scepticism in high-stakes contexts such as auditing. In these settings, sustaining professional scepticism is essential. Default nudges, or pre-selected options, may offset these effects by reducing cognitive demands. We conducted two online experiments to examine how cognitive load and default nudges influence professional scepticism in auditing decisions. Experiment 1 validated a dot memory task manipulation of cognitive load and identified low and high load conditions for subsequent testing. Experiment 2 embedded this manipulation in Phillips audit task, used for measuring professional scepticism in audit. Results showed that cognitive load slowed responses and reduced accuracy. Default nudges accelerated responding and improved accuracy under load, but only when aligned with the most probable response; misaligned nudges reduced accuracy. These findings suggest that defaults act as conditional scaffolds under cognitive strain, supporting judgment and decision-making in some contexts but introducing risks in others. Misaligned defaults reduced accuracy, indicating that they can exploit intuitive responding rather than enhance deliberation.

Touch can give rise to different sensations including sensory, emotional and social aspects. Tactile pleasure typically associated with caress-like skin stroking of slow velocities (1-10 cm/s) has been hypothesised to relate to an unmyelinated, slow-conducting C-tactile afferent system (CT system), developed to distinguish affective touch from the noise of other tactile information on hairy skin (the so-called social touch hypothesis). However, to date, there is no psychometric examination of the discriminative and metacognitive processes that contribute to accurate awareness of pleasant touch stimuli. Over two studies (total N= 194), we combined for the first time CT stimulation with signal detection theory and metacognitive measurements to assess the social touch hypothesis on the role of the CT system in affective touch discrimination. Participants ability to accurately discriminate pleasantness of tactile stimuli of different velocities, as well as their response bias, was assessed using a force-choice task (high versus low pleasantness response) on two different skin sites: forearm (CT-skin) and palm (non-CT skin). We also examined whether such detection accuracy was related to the confidence in their decision (metacognitive sensitivity). Consistently with the social touch hypothesis, we found higher sensitivity d on the forearm versus the palm, indicating that people are better at discriminating between stimuli of high and low tactile pleasantness on a skin site that contains CT afferents. Strikingly, we also found more negative response bias on the forearm versus the palm, indicating a tendency to experience all stimuli on CT-skin as high-pleasant, with such effects depending on order, likely to be explained by prior touch exposure. Finally, we found that people have greater confidence in their ability to discriminate between affective touch stimuli on CT innervated skin than on non-CT skin, possibly relating to the domain specificity of CT touch hence suggesting a domain-specific, metacognitive hypothesis that can be explored in future studies as an extension of the social touch hypothesis.\n\nHighlightsO_LITouch mediated by C-tactile (CT) afferents on hairy skin elicits pleasant sensations\nC_LIO_LIWe combine for the first time CT stimulation with signal detection theory\nC_LIO_LIBetter accuracy to detect pleasantness of tactile stimuli at CT optimal speeds on CT skin\nC_LIO_LIHigher confidence in ability to accurately distinguish affective touch on CT skin\nC_LI

Memory of emotional information often depends on the current mood and the dominant affective state. For example, studies show that people tend to recall emotional information of valence that is congruent with their affective traits. However, not much is known about whether this tendency is captured by metacognitive judgments of learning (JOLs). The aim of this study was to find out how people who score low or high on affectivity scales assess their memory of emotional material. We used a free-recall task with self-referential neutral, positive, and negative adjectives. The results show the affectivity congruence effect: the number of negative words recalled is related to affectivity; it increases with Negative Affectivity (NA) and decreases with Positive Affectivity (PA). Metacognitive assessment of future recall is also related to affectivity. Higher PA is related to higher JOLs for positive words and lower JOLs for negative words. Higher NA is related to higher JOLs for negative words and lower JOLs for positive words. The results suggest that metacognitive processes are sensitive to affective trait-specific memory bias.

When making decisions in real-life, we may receive discrete evidence during a time period. Although participants can integrate information from separate cues to improve their accuracy, it is still debatable how confidence changes after receiving discrete information. Nevertheless, based on the strong positive relationship between accuracy and confidence, we predicted that similar to what is observed in accuracy, confidence would improve following the integration of separate pieces of information. We used a Random-dot-motion discrimination task in which one or two brief stimuli (i.e., pulse[s]) were presented, and participants had to indicate the predominant direction of dot motions by saccadic eye movement. Two pulses intervals (up to 1s) were randomly selected, where color-coded targets facilitated indicating confidence simultaneously. Using behavioral data, computational models, pupillometry, and EEG methodology, our data revealed that compared to single-pulse trials, in double-pulse trials, participants improve their confidence resolution rather than reporting higher confidence and that the EEG signal (centro-parietal-positivity) and pupil dynamics appear to follow confidence levels but only in double-pulse trials. Overall, our findings suggest that evidence integration helps to improve the associations between confidence and accuracy.